الجمهورية,اللبنانية
Al-Jumhūriyyah al-LubnāniyyahLebanese Republic |
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Motto:كلنا للوطن للعلى للعلم(Arabic)
"All for country, for glory, and the flag!" |
Anthem:Kulluna lil-watan lil \'ula lil-\'alam
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Capital
(and largest city)
| Beirut
33°54′N, 35°32′E
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| Official languages |
Arabic |
Other common
languages |
French, Armenian, and English |
| Demonym |
Lebanese
|
| Government |
Republic |
| - |
President |
(Émile Lahoud\'s term expired 11/23/07) |
| - |
Prime Minister |
Fouad Siniora |
| Independence |
from France-administered League of Nations mandate |
|---|
| - |
Declared |
November 26, 1941 |
| - |
Recognized |
November 22, 1943 |
| Area |
| - |
Total |
10,452km²(166th)
4,035sqmi |
| - |
Water(%) |
1.6 |
| Population |
| - |
February 2008estimate |
4,196,453(125th) |
| - |
Density |
358/km²(26th)
948/sqmi |
| GDP(PPP) |
2006estimate |
| - |
Total |
$21.45 billion(103rd) |
| - |
Per capita |
$6,100(90th) |
| HDI(2007) |
▼ 0.772(medium)(88th) |
| Currency |
Lebanese Lira (LL) (LBP) |
| Time zone |
EET (UTC+2) |
| - |
Summer(DST) |
EEST(UTC+3) |
| Internet TLD |
.lb |
| Calling code |
+961
|
Lebanon (IPA: /ˈlɛbənɒn/) (Arabic: لبنان Lubnān), officially the Republic of Lebanon[According to the website of the Embassy of Lebanon in the U.S. and the website of the Lebanese presidency] or Lebanese Republic[ According to U.S. government sources such as the CIA and State Department country guides] (الجمهورية اللبنانية), is a small, predominantly mountainous country in Western Asia, on the eastern shore of the Mediterranean Sea. It is bordered by Syria to the north and east, and Israel to the south. Due to its sectarian diversity, Lebanon evolved a peculiar political system, known as confessionalism, based on a community-based power-sharing mechanism.[Countries Quest. Jonathan Trumbull was born here "Lebanon, Government". Retrieved December 14, 2006.] It was created when the ruling French mandatory powers expanded the borders of the former Maronite Christian autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon district.
The flag of Lebanon features a cedar in green against a white backdrop, bounded by two horizontal red stripes along the top and bottom. This is a reference to the famous cedars of Lebanon, that were mentioned in the verses of the Tanakh/Old Testament, mostly in Psalms and the Song of Songs.
Until the Lebanese Civil War (1975-1990), the country enjoyed relative calm and prosperity, driven by the tourism, agriculture, and banking sectors of the economy. [U.S. Department of State. "Background Note: Lebanon (History) August 2005" Retrieved December 2, 2006.] It is considered the banking capital of the Levant and was widely known as the "Switzerland of the Middle East"[USPG. "Anglican Church in Jerusalem responds to Western Asia crisis". Retrieved October 31, 2006.][Socialist Party (2005). "A new crisis in Western Asia?". Retrieved October 31, 2006.] due to its financial power. Lebanon also attracted large numbers of tourists,[Anna Johnson (2006). "Lebanon: Tourism Depends on Stability". Retrieved October 31, 2006.] to the point that the capital Beirut became widely referred to as the "Paris of the Middle East."[TC Online (2002). "Paris of Western Asia". Retrieved October 31, 2006.]
Immediately following the end of the war, there were extensive efforts to revive the economy and rebuild national infrastructure.[Canadian International Development Agency. "Lebanon: Country Profile". Retrieved December 2, 2006.] By early 2006, a considerable degree of stability had been achieved throughout much of the country, Beirut\'s reconstruction was almost complete,[Center for the Study of the Built Environment. "Deconstructing Beirut\'s Reconstruction: 1990-2000". Retrieved October 31, 2006.] and an increasing number of foreign tourists were pouring into Lebanon\'s resorts.[www.amnesty.org/en/library/info/MDE18/007/2006]
Etymology
A widespread explanation links the name Lebanon ("Lubnān" in standard Arabic; "Lebnén" in local dialect) to the Phoenician and Aramaic root "LBN", which is linked to several closely-related meanings in various languages, such as "white" and "milk".[Joumana Medlej. "The Mountain". Retrieved December 15, 2006.] "White" could be regarded as reference to the snow-capped Mount Lebanon.[Antoine Harb (2004). "Lebanon: A Name through 4000 Years". Retrieved November 1, 2006.] Occurrences of the name have been found in three of the twelve tablets of the Epic of Gilgamesh (2900 BC), the texts of the library of Ebla (2400 BC), and 71 times in the Old Testament.[Christian World News. "Lebanon Historically Linked to the Bible". Retrieved February 21, 2007.][Roger Yazbeck. "Lebanon was mentioned 71 times in the Holy Bible...". Retrieved February 21, 2007.] The name is even recorded in Ancient Egyptian as Rmnn, where r stood for Phoenician l.[Ross, Kelley L. "The Pronunciation of Ancient Egyptian". The Proceedings of the Friesian School, Fourth Series. [1].]
History
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Inscription in Greek on one of the tombs found in the Roman-Byzantine necropolis in Tyre
Ancient history
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The earliest known settlements in Lebanon date back to earlier than 5000 BC. Archaeologists have discovered in Byblos, which is considered to be the oldest continuously-inhabited city in the world,["Byblos". Retrieved July 31, 2007.] remnants of prehistoric huts with crushed limestone floors, primitive weapons, and burial jars which are evidence of the Neolithic and Chalcolithic fishing communities who lived on the shore of the Mediterranean Sea over 7,436 years ago. [2]
Lebanon was the homeland of the Phoenicians, a seafaring people that spread across the Mediterranean before the rise of Cyrus the Great.[About.com (1987)."Lebanon in Ancient Times". Retrieved December 17, 2006.] After two centuries of Persian rule, Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great attacked and burned Tyre, the most prominent Phoenician city. Throughout the subsequent centuries leading up to recent times, the country became part of numerous succeeding empires, among them Persian, Macedonian, Roman, Byzantine, Arab, Crusader, and Ottoman.
Lebanese princess in the Ottoman period 19th century
French mandate and independence
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Lebanon was part of the Ottoman Empire for over 400 years, in a region known as Greater Syria,[U.S. Library of Congress. "History: Present-Day Syria". Retrieved May 2, 2007.] until 1918 when the area became a part of the French Mandate of Syria following World War I. On September 1, 1920, France formed the State of Greater Lebanon as one of several ethnic enclaves within Syria.[Chorbishop Seely Beggiani (2005). "Aspects of Maronite History (Part Eleven) The twentieth century in Western Asia". Retrieved January 24, 2007.] Lebanon was a largely Christian (mainly Maronite) enclave but also included areas containing many Muslims and Druzes. On September 1, 1926, France formed the Lebanese Republic. The Republic was afterward a separate entity from Syria but still administered under the French Mandate of Syria.
Lebanon gained independence in 1943, while France was occupied by Germany.[Lebanese Global Information Center. "History of Lebanon". Retrieved December 9, 2006.] General Henri Dentz, the Vichy High Commissioner for Syria and Lebanon, played a major role in the independence of the nation. The Vichy authorities in 1941 allowed Germany to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. The United Kingdom, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, sent its army into Syria and Lebanon.
After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General Charles de Gaulle visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941 General Georges Catroux announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943 the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943 and accepted the independence of Lebanon.
The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon\'s unwritten National Pact of 1943 required that its president be Christian and its prime minister be Muslim.
Lebanon\'s history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil (including a civil conflict in 1958) interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut\'s position as a regional center for finance and trade.
1948 Arab-Israeli war
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Five years after gaining independence, Lebanon reluctantly joined the Arab League but never invaded Israel[Karsh, Efraim (2002). The Arab-Israeli Conflict. The Palestine War 1948. Osprey Publishing. ISBN 1841763721, p. 27] during the 1948 Arab-Israeli War. It took over logistical support of the Arab Liberation Army after it found itself cut off from its bases in Syria while going on an attack on the newly-proclaimed Jewish State.[Avi Shlaim. "Israel and the Arab Coalition in 1948". Retrieved December 9, 2006.] Lebanon accepted an armistice with Israel on March 23, 1949. Approximately 100,000 Palestinian refugees were living in Lebanon in 1949 as a result of the creation of Israel on the land of Israel and the subsequent war.[Amnesty International. "Palestinian refugees in Lebanon". Retrieved November 14, 2006.] The Lebanese-Israeli border remained closed, but quiet, until after the Six Day War in 1967.
Civil war and beyond
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- See also: 1982 Lebanon War
- See also: List of attacks in Lebanon
In 1975, civil war broke out in Lebanon. The Lebanese Civil War lasted fifteen years, devastating the country\'s economy, and resulting in the massive loss of human life and property. It is estimated that 150,000 people were killed and another 200,000 maimed.[Time (1991). "After the War, the Mop-Up". Retrieved November 30, 2006.] The war ended in 1990 with the signing of the Taif Agreement and parts of Lebanon were left in ruins.[Council on Foreign Relations (2006). "The Future of Lebanon". Retrieved December 18, 2006.]
During the civil war, the Palestine Liberation Organization used Lebanon to launch attacks against Israel. Lebanon was twice invaded and occupied by the Israel Defense Forces (IDF) in 1978 and 1982,[People\'s Daily (2000). "Lebanese Troops Patrol Near Fatma Gate Along Border With Israel". Retrieved December 18, 2006.] the PLO expelled in the second invasion. Israel remained in control of Southern Lebanon until 2000, when there was a general decision, led by Israeli Prime Minister Ehud Barak, to withdraw due to continuous guerrilla attacks executed by Hezbollah militants and a belief that Hezbollah activity would diminish and dissolve without the Israeli presence.[Israel Ministry of Foreign Affairs (2000)."Withdrawal from Lebanon: Press Briefing by Foreign Minister David Levy". Retrieved November 1, 2006.] The UN determined that the withdrawal of Israeli troops beyond the blue line was in accordance with UN Security Council Resolution 425, although a border region called the Shebaa Farms is still disputed. Hezbollah declared that it would not stop its operations against Israel until this area was liberated.[The key to Shebaa, Al-Jazeera online, Retrieved April 1, 2007. ]
Recent history
On February 14, 2005, former Prime Minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated in a car bomb explosion near the Saint George Bay in Beirut.[Hariri.info (2005). "Rafik Hariri". Retrieved December 10, 2006.] Leaders of the March 14 Alliance accused Syria of the attack[CBC News Indepth (2006). "Recent background on Syria\'s presence in Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.] due to its extensive military and intelligence presence in Lebanon, and the public rift between Hariri and Damascus over the Syrian-backed constitutional amendment extending pro-Syrian President Lahoud\'s term in office. Others, namely the March 8 Alliance and Syrian officials, claimed that the assassination may have been executed by the American CIA or the Israeli Mossad in an attempt to destabilize the country.[ See this MEMRI bulletin, includes several statements and sources.]
This incident triggered a series of demonstrations, known as Cedar Revolution, that demanded the withdrawal of Syrian troops from Lebanon and the establishment of an international commission to investigate the assassination. The United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1595 on April 7, 2005, which called for an investigation into the assassination of Rafik Hariri.["United Nations Security Council Resolution 1595 (2005)".] The findings of the investigation were officially published on October 20, 2005 in the Mehlis report.[United Nations Security Council (2005). "Letter dated 20 October 2005 from the Secretary-General addressed to the President of the Security Council". Retrieved November 2, 2006.] Eventually, and under pressure from the international community, Syria began withdrawing its 15,000-strong army troops from Lebanon.[BBC News (2005). "Syria begins Lebanon withdrawal". Retrieved December 11, 2006.] By April 26, 2005, all uniformed Syrian soldiers had already crossed the border back to Syria.[CNN (2005). "Last Syrian troops leave Lebanon". Retrieved December 11, 2006.] The Hariri assassination marked the beginning of a series of assassination attempts that led to the loss of many prominent Lebanese figures.
On July 12, 2006, Hezbollah kidnapped two Israeli soldiers and that led to a conflict, known in Lebanon as July War, that lasted until a United Nations-brokered ceasefire went into effect on 14 August 2006.
Geography and climate
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Lebanon from space. Snow cover can be seen on the
western and
eastern mountain ranges
Lebanon is located in Western Asia. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to the west along a 225km coastline, by Syria to the east and north, and by Israel to the south. The Lebanon-Syria border stretches for 375kilometers (233mi) and the Lebanon-Israel border for 79kilometers (49mi). The border with the Israeli-occupied Golan Heights in Syria is disputed by Lebanon in a small area called Shebaa Farms, but the border has been demarcated by the United Nations.[Telegraph (2000) "Israel\'s Withdrawal from Lebanon Given UN\'s Endorsement". Retrieved November 1, 2006.]
Most of Lebanon\'s area is mountainous terrain,[Encyclopædia Britannica. "Lebanon". Retrieved December 10, 2006.] except for the narrow coastline and the Beqaa Valley, which plays an integral role in Lebanon\'s agriculture.
Lebanon has a moderate Mediterranean climate. In coastal areas, winters are generally cool and rainy whilst summers are hot and humid. In more elevated areas, temperatures usually drop below freezing during the winter with frequent, sometimes heavy, snow; summers, on the other hand, are warm and dry.[(Bonechi et al.) (2004) Golden Book Lebanon, p. 3, Florence, Italy: Casa Editrice Bonechi. ISBN 88-476-1489-9] Although most of Lebanon receives a relatively large amount of rainfall annually (compared to its arid surroundings), certain areas in north-eastern Lebanon receive little rainfall because the high peaks of the western mountain front block much of the rain clouds that originate over the Mediterranean Sea.[Country Studies US. "Lebanon - Climate". Retrieved November 5, 2006.]
In ancient times, Lebanon housed large forests of the Cedars of Lebanon, which now serve as the country\'s national emblem.[Blue Planet Biomes. "Lebanon Cedar - Cedrus libani". Retrieved December 10, 2006.] However, centuries of trading cedar trees, used by ancient mariners for boats, and the absence of any efforts to replant them have depleted Lebanon\'s once-flourishing cedar forests.
Governorates and districts
- See also: Governorates of Lebanonand Districts of Lebanon
Lebanon is divided into six governorates (mohaafazaat, Arabic: محافظات —singular mohafazah, Arabic: محافظة) which are further subdivided into twenty-five districts (aqdya—singular: qadaa).[USAID Lebanon. "USAID Lebanon—Definitions of Terms used". Retrieved December 17, 2006.] The districts themselves are also divided into several municipalities, each enclosing a group of cities or villages. The governorates and their respective districts are listed below:
Demographics and religion
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No official census has been taken since 1932, reflecting the political sensitivity in Lebanon over confessional (i.e. religious) balance. The 2006 CIA World Fact Book, Lebanon entry, gives the following distribution: Muslim 58.7% (Shi\'a, Sunni, Druze, Isma\'ilite, Alawite or Nusayri), Christian 40% (Maronite Catholic, Melkite Catholic, Syriac Catholic, Armenian Catholic, Roman Catholic, Chaldean Catholic, Greek Orthodox, Syriac Orthodox, Armenian Apostolic, Assyrian(Church of the East), Coptic Orthodox, Protestant), other 1.3% note: 18 religious sects recognized.[CIA, the World Factbook (2006). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 7, 2006.] Lebanon has a population of Kurds. The numbers per religion vary from time to time, but mostly the Shias are nearly neck and neck with the Sunnis and the Maronites the largest amongst the Christians. According to electoral records statistics supported by recent research carried out by statistician Yousuf Al Duweihi and were published in the An-Nahar newspaper(11/12/2006), the distribution of sects in Lebanon is as follows: 4.855 million people, of whom 35% are Christian, 29% Shiite Muslims, 29.7% Sunni Muslims and 5% Druze. [3]. The New York Times shows a distribution of 40% Christians, 29% Shiite Muslims, 24% Sunni Muslims, and 5% Druze [The New York Times > International > Interactive Feature > Interactive Graphic: Attacks, Day by Day].
The number of those inhabiting Lebanon proper was estimated at 3,874,050 in July 2006.[Marina Sarruf (2006). "Brazil Has More Lebanese than Lebanon". Retrieved November 30, 2006.] Argentina, Australia, Canada, Colombia, Ecuador, France, Great Britain, Mexico, Venezuela, USA, West Africa, and the Dominican Republic also have large Lebanese communities.
A total of 394,532 Palestinian refugees, almost entirely Sunni Muslims, have registered in Lebanon with the United Nations Relief and Works Agency (UNRWA) since 1948.[UNRWA (December 31, 2003). These continue to face all sorts of discrimination and exclusion largely due to their religious identity."UNRWA: Palestinian Refugees". Retrieved November 25, 2006.]
Economy
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The urban population in Lebanon is noted for its commercial enterprise.[ U.S. Department of State (1994) Header: People, 4th paragraph. Retrieved December 3, 2006.] Over the course of time, emigration has yielded Lebanese "commercial networks" throughout the world.[Background Note: Lebanon "www.washingtoninstitute.org" Retrieved December 3, 2006.] Lebanon has a high proportion of skilled labour comparable to most European nations and the highest among Arabic speaking countries.[United Nations Population Fund."Lebanon - Overview". Retrieved November 9, 2006.]
Although Lebanon is ideally suited for agricultural activities in terms of water availability and soil fertility, as it possesses the highest proportion of cultivable land in the Arabic speaking world,[[4]. Retrieved December 2, 2006.] it does not have a large agricultural sector. Attracting a mere 12% of the total workforce,[Jean Hayek et al, 1999. The Structure, Properties, and Main Foundations of the Lebanese Economy. In The Scientific Series in Geography, Grade 11, 110-114. Beirut: Dar Habib.] agriculture is the least popular economic sector in Lebanon. It contributes approximately 11.7% of the country\'s GDP, also placing it in the lowest rank compared to other economic sectors. Major produce include apples, peaches, oranges, and lemons.[US Department of State (2005). "Lebanon". Retrieved November 1, 2006.]
Lebanon\'s lack of raw materials for industry and its complete dependency on Arab countries for oil have made it difficult for the Lebanese to engage in significant industrial activity. As such, industry in Lebanon is mainly limited to small businesses concerned with reassembling and packaging imported parts. In 2004, industry ranked second in workforce, with 26% of the Lebanese working population,
A combination of beautiful climate, many historic landmarks and World Heritage Sites continues to attract large numbers of tourists to Lebanon annually, in spite of its political instability. In addition, Lebanon\'s strict financial secrecy and capitalist economy—unique in its area—have given it significant economic status among Arab countries. The thriving tourism and banking activities have naturally made the services sector the most important pillar of the Lebanese economy. The majority of the Lebanese workforce (nearly 65%)
The economy\'s dependence on services has always been an issue of great criticism and concern, as it leaves the country subject to the instability of this sector and the vagaries of international trade.
The 1975-1990 civil war seriously damaged Lebanon\'s economic infrastructure, cut national output by half, and all but ended Lebanon\'s position as a West Asian entrepôt and banking hub.[CIA World Factbook 2001. Retrieved 2006-12-04.]
Until the 2006 Lebanon War, Lebanon\'s economy witnessed excellent growth, with bank assets reaching over 75 billion dollars.[Bank Audi (2006). "Lebanon Economic Report: 2nd Quarter, 2006". Retrieved November 27, 2005.] By the end of the first half of 2006, the influx of tourists to Lebanon had already registered a 49.3% increase over 2005 figures.[
]
The war severely damaged Lebanon\'s fragile economy, especially the tourism sector. According to a preliminary report published by the Lebanese Ministry of Finance on August 30, 2006, a major economic decline was expected as a result of the fighting.[Lebanese Ministry of Finance (2006)."Impact of the July Offensive on the Public Finances in 2006". Retrieved September 24, 2006.]
Beirut\'s airport, Rafiq Hariri International Airport, re-opened in September 2006 and the efforts to revive the Lebanese economy have since been proceeding at a slow pace. Major contributors to the reconstruction of Lebanon include Saudi Arabia (with $US 1.5 billion pledged),[Cyprus News (2006). "Saudi Arabia Key Contributor To Lebanon\'s Reconstruction". Retrieved November 26, 2006.] the European Union (with about $1 billion)[Lebanon Under Siege (2006). "Donors pledge more than $940 million for Lebanon". Retrieved November 26, 2006.] and a few other Gulf countries with contributions of up to $800 million.[Ain-Al-Yaqeen (2006). "The Custodian of the Two Holy Mosques Reviews with the Jordanian King the Situation in Lebanon...". Retrieved November 27, 2006.]
Education
Schools
All Lebanese schools are required to follow a prescribed curriculum designed by the Ministry of Education. Private schools, approximately 1,400 in all,[Samidoun (2006). "Aid groups scramble to fix buildings, fill backpacks before school bell rings". Retrieved December 9, 2006.] may also add more courses to their curriculum with approval from the Ministry of Education. The main subjects taught are mathematics, sciences, history, civics, geography, Arabic, and either French or English or both. The subjects gradually increase in difficulty and in number. Students in Grade 11, for example, usually study up to eighteen different subjects.
The government introduces a mild form of selectivity into the curriculum by giving 11th graders choice between two "concentrations": sciences, humanities, and 12th graders choose between four concentrations: life sciences, general sciences, sociology and economics, and humanities and literature. The c
